Regional Differences and Challenges

Regional Differences

The post-communist countries have been introducing reforms with different speed and directions in their social development. They are currently at various stages of reforming their social and institutional systems. In some countries (most of the EU accession countries), the “transition” phase has ended, new and effective institutions are in place, and social inclusion and cohesion issues have been dealt with successfully. Other countries (some of the CIS countries) introduced changes in economic, political, and social life in the first years of transition, but experienced set-backs later; the level of social instability and deviation in these countries is the highest.  Still other CIS countries, even though they may have introduced some degree of liberalization, continue to have authoritarian rule and socialist economy firmly entrenched, in some cases, without extensive poverty, and with robust human development indicators. In addition, South East Europe countries and some of the CIS countries experienced a period of political instability, conflict, and war, which seriously exacerbated transition challenges.

European Union (EU) accession countries.  For the Central East European (CEE) and Baltic countries, the prospect of joining the EU created strong incentives to implement economic and institutional reforms.  It also formed a powerful basis for social cohesion and helped avoid social instability that accompanied large-scale changes in political and economic systems in other transition countries.  The social cohesion experienced in these counties was based on the fact that the CEE had been part of the communist block for a relatively short period of time and the majority of the population opposed the communist rule. In addition, partial market and institutional reforms had already started in many of these countries before the transition.

The CIS: mixed authoritarian and democratic trends.  Given a longer period of state socialism, authoritarian rule has deep roots in many of the CIS countries. Belarus, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan in particular limit citizen participation in political life. In Uzbekistan, confusing legislation, arbitrary enforcement, and broad government restrictions on civil society organizations hinder the ability of citizens to form interest groups or political parties.  Turkmenistan remains a single-party state with severe restrictions on civil and political rights.  Civil society in many of the CIS countries remains weak and fragmented; the legal framework and complex registration laws are conditioned by state distrust of citizen organizations.  Most trade unions and business organizations remain under state control. Many NGOs are under-funded, “under-institutionalized,” and poorly accountable to their members or to the donors who fund them. In the more authoritarian countries of the region, civil society organizations continue to  operate under heavy pressure and are periodically forced to close.

South-East Europe: unconsolidated states.  State institutions in countries such as Bosnia and Albania remain fragile. In Albania, since the end of extreme repression in 1991, and the collapse of the pyramid financial schemes in 1997, waves of unrest have challenged the ability of the Albanian state to guarantee public security.  Although local communities have become more active and the press is relatively open, polarization and politicization reduce the capacity of public sector institutions to prepare or implement policy.  Integration between the Croat-Bosnia Federation and the Republika Srpska have not taken place, due in part to the parallel political institutions set up by the Dayton Accords.

Challenges

Creating Inclusive Societies

Abrupt economic and social changes and dismantling of social institutions led to vulnerability and poverty of large groups of people.  Given the limited opportunities for these groups to restore income and status within the new economic and social system, marginalization appeared to be a most serious problem. It appears in different forms of discrimination and exclusion based on such factors as age, educational level, gender, family size, and ethnic group.

Loss of familiar gender roles and identities.  Numerous studies report discrimination based on gender and/or maternal status, and an increase in sexual harassment at the workplace.  Many women have moved into riskier and poorly paid informal sector work. Others have withdrawn from the labor market altogether because subsidized childcare facilities have closed, and they cannot pay the new fees.  In addition, rising divorce rates and abandonment of families have left some women to bear the entire responsibility for their families.  At the same time, in most of the region, where there are expectations that men should be the breadwinners and decision-makers, male unemployment and underemployment have diminished the authority of men both inside and outside the household.  Male unemployment and related change in status has often associated with a rising rate of depression and suicide, increased alcoholism, and reduced male life expectancy.

Alienation of poor children and youth.  Throughout ECA, children and youth have been disproportionately affected by poverty, collapse of social services, and unemployment. The number of children in residential institutions has increased significantly in the last 10 years and reached 820,000, with 60 percent labeled as disabled.  Studies suggest that the number of children living on the streets ranges from 1 to 3 percent of the population.  With the exception of capital cities, opportunities for education and employment or entrepreneurship for young people have been reduced, and young people have responded with increased drug and alcohol consumption, teenage pregnancies, and particularly among young males, suicide.  Gang activity and crime have also increased, with the share of crimes committed by juveniles rising.

Emerging marginalization of the aged and the disabled.  Pensioners as a group are not at the highest poverty risk in the region because many of these people either work or are supported by relatives, or both.  Others, however, mostly those who must rely on state social protection, which in many countries offers little financial support, experience extreme poverty and must cut back on consumption of such necessities as food, medical treatment, and basic utility services.  Some of these people live in social isolation.

Changing ethnic relations and patterns of marginalization.  New state borders and the creation of new majority-minority relations, created new patterns of exclusion.  In the former Soviet Union countries, Russians living outside of Russia have become minorities.  In some countries, this became a source of political and social tension. Since independence, these tensions are reflected in exclusionary citizenship laws in Latvia and in social and political isolation for the Russian-speaking population in the depressed northern communities of Estonia. In the CEE countries, the Roma, who constitute the most significant minority, have suffered disproportionately from the transition. Many reside in ghettos; few Roma children go beyond basic education. 

Conflict, War, Crime, and Violence

Conflicts in the region started in the power vacuum, which followed the emergence of sovereign states after the break-down of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. They destroyed lives and assets and ruptured communities. Large numbers of people remain displaced in their own countries or are refugees. So far, negotiations over Abkhazia and Nagorno-Karabakh have failed to produce an acceptable resolution for the large populations of internally displaced persons (IDP) in Georgia and Azerbaijan.  The conflict in Chechnya threatens to spread to neighboring regions. In Central Asia, the densely populated and ethnically diverse Ferghana Valley remains vulnerable to conflict.  Bosnia and Herzegovina continues to be a country with weak state institutions, making it susceptible to political instability and conflict.  Creating strong state institutions is the essential measure against conflicts in the region.

Along with impoverishment and weakened state controls, street and organized crime, some organized along ethnic lines, have increased throughout the ECA region.  Some cartels are smuggling goods and trafficking arms, drugs, and persons. Drugs are becoming a major part of local informal economies in the Balkans and in Central Asia.  The number of women and children of both sexes involved in the sex industry significantly increased; according to the International Office of Migration (IOM), as many as 500,000 women are being trafficked to West Europe alone.