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Vocational Skills Development in Sub-Saharan Africa
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Governments increasingly view skills development as an important factor in the drive to enhance productivity, stimulate economic competitiveness and raise people out of poverty. With financial support from the British and Norwegian Governments, the Africa Region of the Bank has launched a project to review experience with vocational skills development in Sub-Saharan Africa. The review encompasses fourteen thematic studies, a synthesis and a literature review. These are available below. A final synthesis was published in March 2004.
"Skills Development in Sub-Saharan Africa" by Richard Johanson and Arvil V. Adams. The Synthesis consolidates the key findings and policy messages emanating from the thematic studies outlined below plus the studies in the second phase. It includes chapters on introduction and background; labor market context and developments; public sector training provision; private training provision; enterprise-based training; informal sector training; resource mobilization and financial transfer mechanisms.
Vocational Skills Development in Sub-Saharan Africa Project Overview
1) "Working, But Not Well: Notes on the Nature and Extent of Employment Problems in Sub-Saharan Africa" (611KB PDF) by Fred Fluitman, International Training Center of the International Labor Organization (ILO/ITC). This broad-brush overview examines the growth of labor supply in SSA, the demand for labor in the formal, informal and rural sectors, unemployment and selected topics including gender issues, child labor, youth unemployment, migration and HIV/AIDS.
2) "Sub-Sahara Africa – Regional Response to Bank TVET Policy in the 1990s" (374KB PDF) by Richard Johanson. This study reviews 24 projects in the area of TVET as financed by the World Bank in the 1990s. The review is based on a desk study of Bank documents, complemented by staff interviews. The study compares Regional support for TVET over the last decade with recommendations in the Bank's 1991 Policy Paper on TVET, assesses the responsiveness of Bank-financed projects to the 1991 policy, examines results, derives lessons from the investments and proposes recommendations to improve Bank practices. Five case studies of World Bank projects are presented (Madagascar, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya and Senegal).
3) "Financing Vocational Training to Meet Policy Objectives: Sub-Saharan Africa" (688KB PDF) by Adrian Ziderman. This work first examines the theoretical basis for different financing mechanisms, including the rationale for state intervention in training markets. Based on a literature review and country visits to Tanzania, Zimbabwe and South Africa, the review then explores the effects of different kinds of training levies, different forms of training funds and the implications of different transfer mechanisms. The advantages and limitations are presented of the various financing measures and mechanisms. The report concludes with a checklist for policy makers on a menu of measures that may be employed to achieve various policy objectives.
4) "Revisiting Technical and Vocational Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Update on Trends, Innovations and Challenges" (1.3MB PDF) by David Atchoarena and Andre Marcel Delluc, International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) (Unesco). The report documents policy trends in technical-vocational education (TVE) in sub-Saharan Africa and the reconstruction of training systems. The report focuses on innovations in an effort to identify promising initiatives likely to contribute to the establishment of consistent TVE systems. The report provides an overview of TVE systems in 10 sub-Saharan countries; reviews the various models currently in place and their evolution; documents the relationship between African TVE systems and policies and donor intervention and traditions in TVE, with special reference to French-speaking African countries and France; identifies constraints in implementation of reforms; analyzes specific innovations, including their strengths and limitations; draws lessons on the implementation of the reform agenda and its impact on TVE systems; and discusses possible directions for future donor support.
5) "Private Technical and Vocational Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Provision Patterns and Policy Issues" (528KB PDF) by David Atchoarena, et. al., IIEP. This study gathers information on the features of private technical and vocational institutions, on their activity and cost-effectiveness. The primary objective is to document the emergence of a private sector for skills development in selected sub-Saharan countries, with particular focus on Mali and Senegal, and to draw preliminary lessons for state intervention in the training market. Part I of the report reviews the available literature on private technical and vocational education. It provides a general overview of the sector and illustrates modes of state regulation currently being implemented in selected countries. Part II presents and analyzes two case studies, Senegal and Mali, concerning the emergence of private training institutions; and discusses forms of state intervention. The final part formulates policy guidelines to improve the functioning of private skills development in both countries and proposes general directions for regulation.
6) "Synthesis of main findings from two case studies carried out in Ghana and Zambia on private technical and vocational education and training (TVET) - Phase II" (281KB PDF) by Igor Kitaev, et al., IIEP (Unesco). This study, a second phase of the study reported immediately above, reports the results of two further case studies - in Anglophone Africa - Ghana and Zambia. The study documents the present scope of provision of TVET by private providers, the main characteristics of the private training markets in the two countries, and identifies constraints and limitations for their further development.
7) "Practices and Trends in Formal Sector Enterprise-based Training in Africa: Case Studies from Kenya and Zambia" (191KB PDF) by John Grierson and Kenneth King, ILO/ITC. The purpose of the study is to document current practices and emerging trends in enterprise-based training (EBT) in the modern sector. It examines practices in thirteen active enterprises in two countries, Kenya and Zambia. The individual case studies examine interfirm workforce composition and patterns of change; EBT practices and plans; the impact of, and response to, HIV/AIDS; and methods of financing training. Tentative conclusions are drawn about the impact of liberalization and competition on skill requirements; a trend away from ad hoc to structured training within a long-term strategic perspective; growing enterprise-level self reliance in training and declining public-private linkages.
8) "Labor Markets and Enterprise Training in African Manufacturing" (132KB PDF) by Andrew Dabalen, Helena Skyt Nielsen and Michael Rosholm (2003). This study assesses the scope and the benefits of enterprise training in African manufacturing sector. The report is a sythesis of two background studies using extensive enterprise data that were collected in the early to mid-1990s from five African countries. It discusses the extent of informal/formal training, training by firm size, ownership and education of workers. The size of benefits by trainees and the policy issues regarding enterprise training are also discussed. Countries surveyed include Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
9) "Training for Work in the Informal Sector: New Evidence from Eastern and Southern Africa" (734KB PDF) by Hans C. Haan, ILO/ITC. The study reviews current policies, programmes and projects that concern skills for informal sector operators, and draws lessons that may be pertinent for the design and implementation of future policies and programmes/projects. More specifically the study depicts interesting cases of formal and non-formal training programmes directed at the informal sector of micro- and small enterprises, and identify emerging needs and trends, and their possible consequences. Based on field work in five countries, the study examines the most important changes with regard to training policies and training delivery systems when it comes to skills development for the informal sector. The paper is structured in three parts. Based largely on a review of available literature Part-I provides background on training for the informal sector; an overview of developments in the concept of the informal sector, complemented by some recent information on the informal sector in Africa; and a brief summary of the main developments and good practices in providing support to the informal micro and small enterprise sector. Part-II contains the main body of the report, with the case studies from countries visited, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Part-III presents conclusions.
10) "Training for Work in the Informal Sector: Fresh Evidence from West and Central Africa" (636KB PDF) by Hans Haan with Nicholas Serrière. This paper is the second of a two-part survey of informal sector training in Sub-Saharan Africa (see previous document). Based on field work in Benin, Cameroon, Ghana, Niger and Senegal, the study presents five country reviews and 18 case studies which are especially innovative or instructive for skills development in the informal sector. On the basis of the case studies it identifies trends and emerging 'good practices' in training provision both for informal sector entrepreneurs and workers.
11) "Distance Learning for Technical and Vocational Education in Sub-Sahara Africa: Challenges and Opportunities" (383KB PDF) by Geoffrey Stevens. Distance education is believed by many to hold promise in addressing critical problems facing skills development at present, namely: a lack of qualified instructors, the need to greatly increase the delivery of skills training on a wide scale, and the need to deliver training at much lower unit costs owing to constraints on financing. This study reviews the current literature on the application of distance education in reforming TVET, describes and assesses various technology-assisted models of distance education, describes technological, pedagogical and policy issues associated with the application of distance education to TVET, and derives conclusions. Five case studies, prepared as desk studies, are presented on the use of different media in developing country settings (Ghana, Benin, Zambia and South Africa). The report includes a glossary of terms used in e-learning.
12) "Vocationalized Secondary Education Revisited" (137KB PDF) by Jon Lauglo, Albert Akyeampong, Kilemi Mwiria and Sheldon Weeks. This study reviews findings on vocationalized secondary education (vocational subjects taught as a minor component of mainly academic secondary education). The focus is on goals, implementation constraints, cost analysis, outcomes, impact. Separate reports are presented on three countries which have pursued vocationalization policies since the 1980s: Botswana (172KB PDF), Ghana (223KB PDF) and Kenya (396KB PDF).
13) "Integrated Entrepreneurship Education in Botswana, Uganda and Kenya" (651KB PDF) by Halfdan Farstad. The purpose of the study is to examine experiences with the introduction within formal schools and training institutions of entrepreneurship education, i.e. teaching students how to establish and operate small businesses. The first part examines current provision of entrepreneurship education and its implications in Botswana, Uganda and Kenya. The second part separates out key topics, namely planning and preparation, objectives and content, teacher qualifications and motivation, training of trainers and delivery and environmental conditions. The third part draws conclusions and offers recommendations.
14) "Skills and Literacy Training for Better Livelihoods: A Review of Approaches and Experiences" (1.14MB PDF) by John Oxenham et al, Institute for International Cooperation of the German Adult Education Association. This report uses available documentary accounts to examine two broad approaches to combining livelihood training with literacy instruction. One is to enrich a livelihood-led program with components in calculating, writing and reading. The other is to enrich a literacy-led program with training for one or more livelihoods. The comparison asks: What approaches have been used? What are the documented outcomes and impacts of these approaches? What are the lessons regarding management, implementation and resource requirements? What approaches are likely to be most effective under conditions prevailing in sub-Saharan Africa, and what are the pitfalls to avoid?" Altogether, 18 programs with relevant documentation were examined in some depth, all dealing with very poor people, mostly rural and mostly women. Four case studies are presented (Guinea, Kenya, Senegal and Uganda). More studies commissioned by the World Bank on adult literacy issues are found on http://www.worldbank.org/education/adultoutreach.
Annotated Bibliography (1990-2000) (142KB PDF) by Robin de Pietro Jurand. A literature review was conducted before the above studies were undertaken. This bibliography summarizes some of the documentation issued in the 1990s on vocational training and skills development worldwide.
Note: each of the studies above has its own bibliography citing additional documents.
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