Social insurance benefits include unemployment insurance and assistance and pensions. Safety nets/social assistance interventions include various cash and in-kind transfers programs such as child feeding, vouchers for schooling and housing, etc., that supplement income. | | |
A major issue for the urban poor is that they are usually self-employed, often in unregistered (informal sector) activities, or have only occasional wage employment. Therefore, social insurance benefits that depend on workers' contributions, especially pensions and unemployment insurance, rarely provide adequate income replacement for workers in the informal sector or whose employment in the formal sector is occasional. This underscores the importance of other measures noted above to better integrate the poor into the regular labor market as registered small firms and employees so that they can have basic benefits and legal protections. In the meantime such workers must rely on safety net interventions that supplement income through a variety of cash or in-kind transfers. Safety nets (or social assistance programs) are often financed by national government but administered by local governments; therefore, capacity building of local governments is also important for the effectiveness of these programs. Non-governmental safety nets, such as NGO programs, could also be fostered by government as they may be suitable to reaching the poor who remain outside of formal employment. Social protection programs often require central government actions at policy and regulatory frameworks level. But actions that local authorities can take include: Identify poor and their needs and linking their communities to the central government programs Integrate the poor into the regular labor markets so that they will have access to social insurance Initiate specific programs, e.g., incentives to keep children at school, etc.
Social Services: Health, Nutrition, Education and Personal Safety Health and Nutrition Food insecurity and thus malnutrition, overcrowded and unhygienic living conditions; lack of sanitation and water; and the juxtaposition of residential and industrial functions are among the major causes of health poverty in cities. Urban poor are also prone to work and employment-related diseases and accidents. Children are also sufferers of unhealthy work conditions. The people who are most prone to environmental hazards and job related diseases are those least able to avoid them and who have the most serious health impacts because they lack the income or assets (insurance, etc.) to cope with illness and injury (Satterthwaite 1998). Taking time off threatens their family's economic survival. Poorer households lose a higher proportion of total income from being ill than richer households. Provision of health services can be under the responsibility of central governments. However, local authorities can contribute to the health poverty reduction through: Facilitating access to basic services (see service provision section) Monitoring health in their cities Facilitating health education in poor districts Improving the state of nutrition through supporting urban agriculture, etc.
Education Like health services, education can be under the responsibility of central governments. However, local authorities can contribute through: Monitoring education Facilitating access to schools Collaborating with the private sector, NGOs, and parents for better school facilities
Personal Safety - Crime Prevention Personal security of urban poor is jeopardized by: Family breakdown (often caused by drug and alcohol abuse), social diversity and visible income inequality in cities, evictions due to tenure insecurity, social and institutional exclusion, and lack of assets and opportunities, often lead to community and domestic violence. Women and children are most often the victims of domestic violence. Family breakdown often leads to reduced support for children, and youths are often involved in drugs and gangs (a negative form of social capital network) instead of family support. Gang, drug, and gun violence involves youths not only as perpetrators but victims as well and threatens personal security of others in low-income areas. Lack of jobs, inability to continue education, and lack of opportunities for other constructive activity are the underlying factors. Social diversity and especially visible income inequality in cities increases tensions and temptation for crime. Evictions organized by public or private landlords also threaten personal security in low-income/slum settlements. Burning of settlements to make way for subsequent developers and threats to tenants by slum landlords are reported by various studies (Apiyo 1998). Social and institutional exclusion, i.e., not having full rights and responsibilities of "citizens", make the poor susceptible to causes of insecurity Lack of assets, services and opportunities (both communal and personal) stigmatize certain residences in cities as centers of crime and desolation. There is a strong consensus that crime problems should be addressed at the city level and that the municipal authorities are in a strategic position to initiate and coordinate action. Possible policy actions by local authorities are: Support community organizations to strengthen community networks Initiate training and job creation programs for the youth Provide community services, e.g., safe transport and electricity for slum areas Provide tenure security Support positive contact between poor communities and security forces; encourage and implement (if possible) appropriate training for security forces involved in crime prevention.
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